|
Input or output filters are always needed where external cables are connected, but may not be necessary where opamps interconnect with other opamps by PCB traces over a dedicated 0V plane. Any wired interconnections inside unshielded enclosures may also need filtering, as might wired interconnections inside shielded enclosures which also contain digital processing or switch-mode converters.
1.3 Switch-mode design
This technology is inherently electromagnetically noisy and will produce lots of interference if not firmly controlled, as outlined below. These techniques will also help make switch-mode power supplies low-noise enough to power sensitive analogue circuits.
1.3.1 Choice of topology and devices
Always switch power softly rather than abruptly, keeping both dV/dt and dI/dt low at all times. There are a number of circuit topologies which produce minimum emissions by reducing dV/dt and/or di/dt, whilst also reducing the stresses on the switching transistors. These include ZVS (zero-voltage switching), ZCS (zero current switching), resonant mode (a type of ZCS), SEPIC (single-ended primary inductance converter), Cük (an integrated magnetics topology, named after its inventor), etc.
In traditional (more noisy) topologies, where the power devices are not switched at zero volts or zero current, it is not true to say that reducing switching time always leads to efficiency improvements. All systems, circuits, and components (especially wound components) have natural resonant frequencies at radio frequencies. When the waveforms used by a circuit contain spectral components close to these natural resonant frequencies their resonances will become ‘excited’ and cause ringing, unwanted oscillations and emissions, and voltage overshoots that can increase the dissipation in power switching devices and even damage them.
Suppressing these resonances requires snubbing techniques which are usually lossy, as well as requiring costly components and PCB area. So switching at an ever-faster rate (which means increasingly high frequency content) eventually leads to diminishing efficiency and/or worsened reliability. For the most cost-effective design overall – soft-switching techniques trade a percentage point or two of device dissipation for much lower costs and sizes of filtering and shielding, minimum heatsink sizes and good reliability.
From an EMC point of view, faster switching edges means more energy in higher-frequency harmonics, hence larger and more complex filters and shielding. In poorly designed switch-mode power converters, harmonics of up to 1000 times the basic switching rate often cause failure to meet emissions tests.
One of the problems with switching power FETs is that their rate of change of drain voltage is a non-linear function of their gate voltage. Using the ‘gate charge model’ (which includes the ‘Miller effect’ from Cdg) provides much better accuracy when designing gate drive circuits so that they control the dV/dt at the drain.
1.3.2 Snubbing
Snubbing is usually required to protect the switching transistors from the peak voltages produced by the resonance of stray elements in the circuit components. Figure 5 shows the stray leakage inductance and inter-winding capacitance typical of an isolating transformer.
These form a resonant circuit which causes larger voltage overshoots the more abruptly its current is switched. On an emissions spectrum these resonances are often seen as a regular variation in the envelope of the emissions.
In the case of transformers, snubbers are connected across the winding whose overshoots are to be suppressed. Snubbers come in many types: A resistor and capacitor in series (RC type) is usually the best for EMC but can run hotter than other types.
Be prepared to compromise, and beware of using inductive components in snubbers. Inductance compromises snubber performance, so very low-inductance power resistors and pulse-rated capacitors should be used, with very short leads to the winding concerned.
1.3.3 Heatsinks
Heatsinks have around 50pF of capacitance to the collectors or drains of a TO247 power device, and similar capacitances to other package styles, so are strongly-coupled with the dV/dt of the collector or drain and can create strong emissions of electric fields through their own stray capacitances to other components either inside the product or the outside world. It is usually best to connect primary switching device heatsinks directly to one of the primary DC power rails – taking full account of all safety requirements, including a clear warning on or near the heatsink that it is live.
Heatsinks could be capacitively connected to the hazardous rail to improve safety, and it may even be possible to “tune” the capacitance with the length of its leads and traces to minimise troublesome frequencies.
It is important to return the RF current injected into the heatsink (via its 50pF or so capacitance) as quickly as possible back to its source whilst enclosing the smallest loop area, to avoid replacing an electric-field emissions problem with a magnetic field emissions problem. Always allow for some iteration on a prototype to find the best heatsink suppression method (for instance, which DC rail is the best to connect the heatsink to).
An alternative is to use shielded heat-sink thermal insulators. Their shielded inner layer is connected to the appropriate DC rail. The heatsink itself can remain isolated or else be connected to chassis. Although this is the safest, it is more costly.
Similar problems afflict the heatsinks of secondary rectifiers, but their heatsinks can usually be connected to their local 0V with no safety worries.
1.3.4 Rectifiers
The rectifiers used for primary flywheels and secondary rectifiers can cause a great deal of noise (hence emissions) due to their reverse current flow.
Faster-switching devices need less reverse charge (current x time) and can cause less noise. But if they are hard-switching types they can excite resonances in the switcher components (especially the isolation transformer) and cause excessive overshoots and emissions.
It is best for EMC to use rectifier types which have fast operation but soft-switching characteristics, as shown by Figure 6.
1.3.5 Problems and solutions relating to magnetic components
Pay particular attention to closing the magnetic circuits of inductors and transformers, e.g. using toroids or gapless cores. Iron powder toroidal cores are available for energy-storage magnetics, these effectively have a distributed air gap and so emit lower fields than gapped cores.
If air gaps have to be used, for instance in C, E or pot cores, an overall shorted turn may be needed to reduce the leakage fields. ‘Overall’ means that it goes around the entire body of the transformer, so it is only a shorted turn for the leakage fields.
Primary switching noise is injected via the interwinding capacitance of isolating transformers, creating common-mode noise in the secondaries. These noise currents are difficult to filter, and travel long distances, enclosing large loop areas (to keep Mr Kirchoff happy) thereby creating emissions problems.
Interwinding shields in an isolating transformer can suppress primary switching noise in the secondaries. One shield is a great help, and should be connected to a primary DC rail. Up the five shields is not unheard of, but three is more likely. When using three shields, the shield adjacent to the secondary windings usually connects to the common output ground (if there is one) and the shield in the middle usually connects to chassis. Be prepared to iterate a prototype to find their best connections.
PCB-transformers are becoming increasingly popular, and adding shields to these is simply a matter of adding more PCB layers (making sure that creepage and clearance distances are achieved despite tolerances in PCB manufacture).
Another powerful technique is to provide a local return path for these currents with small (safety approved!) capacitors connected between the secondary ground and one of the primary power rails.
Make sure that these capacitors don’t cause the total earth leakage current to exceed the specification in the relevant safety standard.
These capacitors also help any filters on the secondaries to work much better, by reducing the source impedance of the emissions so that common-mode chokes can function effectively.
The above two techniques also reduce the secondary switching noise which appears at the input, via the isolating transformer’s interwinding capacitance. The primary to secondary capacitor also makes filtering at the input more effective.
Figure 6B shows a simple switcher with a single interwinding shield and a primary-secondary bridging capacitor.
1.3.6 Spread-spectrum clocking for switch-mode
‘Spread-spectrum clocking’ techniques as described in 1.1.5 above can also be used with some switch-mode topologies to spread the emissions spectrum of the individual harmonics so that they measure less on an EMC test. Commercial and industrial conducted emissions tests use a 9kHz bandwidth from 150kHz to 30MHz, so spreading a harmonic by ±90kHz can give reductions of more than 10dB.
The spreading range can often be much larger than 1 or 2%, and some high-power converter manufacturers use almost white noise.
1.4 Signal communication components and circuit design
1.4.1 Non-metallic communications are best
The best communications for EMC purposes are infrared or optical, via free-space (e.g. IRDA) or fibre-optics. Their transmitters must not emit too much, and the receivers must be immune enough, but these are usually easier to control than the EMC of a long cable. Metal-can shielded transmitters and receivers are now readily available. It is often possible to bring metal-free fibre-optic cables right through the walls of shielded enclosures to PCBs or modules inside, without compromising the enclosure shielding, whereas metallic wires and cables need to be filtered and/or 360o shield bonded at the points where they cross shielded enclosure boundaries.
Wireless communications are another alternative, but because they use the radio spectrum they sometimes cause interference with nearby electronics, and they can also be interfered with by electromagnetic disturbances.
Wires and cables may appear at first sight to be more cost-effective, but by the time their EMC problems have eventually been solved at the end of a project the non-metallic alternatives would often have been preferable for reasons of cost and timescale. Another reason for using non-metallic communications is that galvanic isolation to very high values is automatically achieved, improving product reliability and greatly easing the risks of failing EMC tests.
Wires and cables are usually cost-effective within a fully shielded product enclosure, but even then ‘internal EMC’ problems and the slow propagation velocity in cables can make infra-red or optical alternatives more attractive. (Don’t forget to take account of the delays in the infra-red or optical transceivers themselves into account. |
